Anthropic: pertaining to humans or the period of their existence on earth. Of or belonging to a human being; of a human sort. Also, concerned with or relating to human beings; in geology, applied to the period of the deposits in which human remains are found.

Archaeology: the scientific study and reconstruction of the human past through the systematic recovery of the physical remains of man's life and cultures. Artifacts, structures, settlements, materials, and features of prehistoric or ancient peoples are surveyed and/or excavated to uncover history in times before written records.

Australopithecus: an extinct genus of small-brained, large-toothed bipedal hominins that lived in Africa between one and four million years ago.

Anthropology: the career field concerned with the interrelations of biological, cultural, geographical, and historical aspects of the human race.

Biface: in archaeology, a biface is a two-sided stone tool, manufactured through a process of lithic reduction, that displays flake scars on both sides. A profile view of the final product tends to exhibit a lenticular shape (i.e., as a convex lens). Bifacial artifacts can be made on large flakes or blocks, and may be grouped into numerous distinct classes.

Bipedalism: having two feet, two-footed, biped. Capable of locomotion on two feet.

Cranial capacity: neurocranial volume, usually measured by cubic centimeters. The number results on measuring the cranial region capacity that includes the brain, the cerebellum and the raquid bulb.

Cannibalism: also called anthropophagy (from Greek: anthropos, "human being"; and, phagein, "to eat") is the act or practice of humans eating other humans. In zoology, the term "cannibalism" is extended to refer to any species consuming members of its own kind. Neanderthals are believed to have practiced cannibalism. There are many kids of cannibalism depending on the objective followed: ritual, gastronomic or for surviving.

Computerized Axial Tomogrbaphy (CAT scan): tomography in which computer analysis of a series of cross-sectional scans made along a single axis of a bodily structure or tissue is used to construct a three-dimensional image of that structure. The technique is used in diagnostic studies of internal bodily structures, as in the detection of tumors or brain aneurysms.

To date: to determine the age of a particular artifact, site, or part of a site. The two categories of chronometric techniques that archaeologists use are called relative and absolute dating. Relative dating determines the relative age of artifacts or site, as compared to others, but does not produce precise dates. Absolute dating, methods that produce specific chronological dates for objects and occupations, was not available to archaeology until well into the 20th century.

Estratigrafía: a branch of geology that studies rock layers and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy includes two related subfields: lithologic or lithostratigraphy and biologic stratigraphy or biostratigraphy.

Eurasia: is a large landmass covering about 53,990,000 km² or about 10.6% of the Earth's surface (36.2% of the land area). Often considered a single continent, Eurasia comprises the traditional continents of Europe and Asia, concepts which date back to classical antiquity and the borders for which are somewhat arbitrary.

Evolution: the continuing process of change in the inherited traits of a population of organisms from one generation to the next

Fossils: the remains, impression, or other evidence of a plant or an animal of a former geologic age; especially, parts that are petrified (converted to stone).

Genetics: a discipline of biology that study the science of heredity and variation in living organisms. The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of genetics, which seeks to understand the process of inheritance, only began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-nineteenth century. Although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, Mendel observed that organisms inherit traits in a discrete manner—these basic units of inheritance are now called genes.

Geochronology: the science of determining the absolute age of rocks, fossils, and sediments, within a certain degree of uncertainty inherent within the method used. A variety of dating methods are used by geologists to achieve this. The interdisciplinary approach of using several methods can often achieve best results.

Geology: the science and study of the solid and liquid matter that constitute the Earth. The field of geology encompasses the study of the composition, structure, physical properties, dynamics, and history of Earth materials, and the processes by which they are formed, moved, and changed. The field is important in academics, industry (due to mineral and hydrocarbon extraction), and for social issues such as geotechnical engineering, the mitigation of natural hazards, and knowledge about past climate and climate change.

Hominid/ Hominin: any member of the biological family Hominidae (the "great apes"), including the extinct and extant humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans, of which the modern human, Homo sapiens, is the only extant species.

Hominization: the process of becoming human. The contemporary study of hominization is found in archeology and often looks for signs that mark out human habitations from pre-human forms, examples of this being the use of burial gifts etc.

Holocene: a geological epoch which began approximately 10,000 years ago (about 8000 BC). According to traditional geological thinking, the Holocene continues to the present. The Holocene is part of the Neogene and Quaternary periods. Its name comes from the Greek words holos: whole or entire and kainos: new, meaning "entirely recent".

Homo sapiens: literally "wise man"; the modern human being, the only extant species of the genus, or family, that also included other species named Homo. Of the family, Hominidae. It appeared in Africa approximately 100.000 years ago.

Homo antecessor: extinct hominin and a potential distinct species dating from 1.2 million to 800,000 years ago, that was discovered by Eudald Carbonell, J. L. Arsuaga and J. M. Bermúdez de Castro. Homo antecessor is one of the earliest known hominins in Europe; only those individuals from the site of Dmanisi, Georgia, are older. Many anthropologists believe that H. antecessor is either the same species or a direct antecedent to Homo heidelbergensis, who inhabited Europe from 600,000 to 250,000 years ago in the Pleistocene. It is suggested that this is the last common ancestor of Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens. The best-preserved fossil is a maxilla which belonged to a 10-year-old individual found in Spain. Based on palaeomagnetic measurements, it is thought to be older than 780-857 ka (Falguères et al., 1999:351). The average brain was 1000 cm³ in volume. In 1994 and 1995, 80 fossils of six individuals that may have belonged to the species were found in Atapuerca. At the site were numerous examples of cuts where the flesh had been flensed from the bones, which indicates that H. antecessor could have practised cannibalism.

Homo heidelbergensis: extinct species of the genus Homo which may be the direct ancestor of Homo neanderthalensis in Europe. They lived in Europe between 780.000 and 600.000 years ago. Their name comes from the jaw found in 1907 in Heideberg (Germany). Homo heidelbergensis stone tool technology was considerably close to that of the Acheulean tools used by Homo erectus, they also managed fire.

Homo neanderthalensis: is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from Pleistocene specimens found in Europe and parts of western and central Asia. Neanderthals are either classified as a subspecies of humans (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) or as a separate species (Homo neanderthalensis).[1] The first proto-Neanderthal traits appeared in Europe as early as 600,000–350,000 years ago.[2] Proto-Neanderthal traits are occasionally grouped to another cladistic 'species', Homo heidelbergensis, or a migrant form, Homo rhodesiensis. By 130,000 years ago, complete Neanderthal characteristics had appeared. These characteristics then disappeared in Asia by 50,000 years ago and in Europe by 30,000 years ago.[3] The youngest Neanderthal finds include Hyaena Den (UK), considered older than 30,000 years ago, while the Vindija (Croatia) Neanderthals have been re-dated to between 32,000 and 33,000 years ago. No definite specimens younger than 30,000 years ago have been found. Modern human skeletal remains with 'Neanderthal traits' were found in Lagar Velho (Portugal), dated to 24,500 years ago and interpreted as indications of extensively admixed populations.[4]

Holotype: a type that fixes a name to a taxon. A holotype is a single physical example (or illustration) of an organism, known to be used when the species (or lower-ranked taxon) was formally described.

Karst topography: landscape shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite. Due to subterranean drainage, there may be very limited surface water, even to the absence of all rivers and lakes. Many karst regions display distinctive surface features, with sinkholes or dolines being the most common. However, distinctive karst surface features may be completely absent where the soluble rock is mantled, such as by glacial debris, or confined by a superimposed non-soluble rock strata. Some karst regions include thousands of caves, even though evidence of caves that are big enough for human exploration is not a required characteristic of karst.

Limestone pavement: natural karst landform consisting of a flat, incised surface of exposed limestone that resembles an artificial pavement. Conditions for limestone pavements are created when an advancing glacier scrapes away overburden and exposes horizontally-bedded limestone, with subsequent glacial retreat leaving behind a flat, bare surface.

Lithic flake: portion of rock removed from an objective piece by percussion or pressure and may also be referred to as a chip or spall, or collectively as debitage. The objective piece, or the rock being reduced by the removal of flakes, is known as a core.

Lithic industry: collection of tools made by stone that can be found in a certain place and time and represent a proof of human activity. Although stone-tool-dependent cultures exist even today, most stone tools are associated with prehistoric societies that no longer exist.

Molar (tooth): back tooth, grinding tooth with a broad crown.

Monolith: geological feature such as a mountain, consisting of a single massive stone or rock, or a single piece of rock placed as, or within, a monument. Erosion usually exposes the geological formations, which are most often made of very hard and solid metamorphic or sedimentary rock.

Neolithic: ("New" Stone Age) from Greek neolithikos: neos: new, lithos: stone, was a period in the development of human technology beginning about 10,000 B.C. in the Middle East that is traditionally the last part of the Stone Age. The Neolithic era follows the terminal Holocene Epipalaeolithic periods, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution" and ending when metal tools became widespread in the Copper Age (chalcolithic) or Bronze Age or developing directly into the Iron Age, depending on geographical region. A reference to the period of human culture following the Mesolithic period; characterized by a great variety of polished stone, implements, and the development of new social forms based on primitive techniques in weaving, spinning, and pottery-making, and the introduction of a settled agriculture exploiting many new domesticated plants.

Paleobiology: growing and comparatively new discipline which combines the methods and findings of the natural science biology with the methods and findings of the earth science paleontology. It is occasionally referred to as "geobiology." Paleobiological research uses biological field research of current biota and of fossils millions of years old to answer questions about the molecular evolution and the evolutionary history of life. In this scientific quest, macrofossils, microfossils and trace fossils are typically analyzed. However, the 21st-century biochemical analysis of DNA and RNA samples offers much promise, as does the biometric construction of phylogenetic trees.

Paleoecology: ecology that deals with fossil organisms. It studies the distribution and profusion of fossil species in relation to biotic and abiotic factors.

Paleomagnetism: the study of the record of the Earth's magnetic field preserved in various magnetic minerals through time. The study of paleomagnetism has demonstrated that the Earth's magnetic field varies substantially in both orientation and intensity through time. Paleomagnetists study the ancient magnetic field by measuring the orientation of magnetic minerals in rocks and sediments, acquired at the time of their formation (remnant magnetization), then using methods similar to geomagnetism to determine what configuration of the Earth's magnetic field may have resulted in the observed orientation.

Paleophysiology: autoecologic research that studies the human being as a very particular species in its environment: physical and biological parameters of the hominins, its nutricional and metabolic requirements, survival behaviors, etc.

Paleoneurobiology: it deals with the study of the endocranial anatomy and morphology of the extinct taxa, by means of the functional relationship between the brain and the neurocranial bones. Single traits and characters as well as the general phenotype and the spatial organisation of the endocranial structures are investigated using shape analysis, geometrical models, and multivariate statistics, in both modern humans and fossil hominins.

Paleoanthropology: the study of ancient humans as found in fossil hominins evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints.

Paleolithic: (“Old age of the stone”) from Greek palaios: old and lithos: stone) was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865, and refers to a prehistoric era distinguished by the development of the first stone tools. It covers the greatest portion of humanity's time on Earth, with the introduction of stone tools by hominins such as Homo habilis, to the introduction of agriculture and the end of the Pleistocene.

Paleontology: from Greeek palaios: old, onto: being and logos: science, is the study of prehistoric life, including organisms' evolution and interactions with each other and their environments. As a "historical science" it tries to explain causes rather than conduct experiments to observe effects. Although 5th century BC and medieval thinkers made what would now be called paleontological observations, the science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuvier's work on comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the 19th century. As knowledge has increased, paleontology has also developed specialised subdivisons, some of which focus on different types of fossil organisms while others focus on ecological and environmental aspects such as ancient climates.

Phylogenesis: the study of the origins and the evolutionary development of the species. The term phylogenetics is of Greek origin from the terms phyle/phylon, meaning "tribe, race," and genetikos, meaning "relative to birth" from genesis "birth". Pliocene epoch: the period in the geologic timescale that extends from 4 million to 1.800 million years before present. The Pliocene is the second epoch of the Neogene period in the Cenozoic era. The Pliocene follows the Miocene epoch and is followed by the Pleistocene epoch.

Pleistocene: epoch from 1.8 million to 11,000 years BP covering the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek pleistos: most and kainos: new. The Pleistocene epoch follows the Pliocene epoch and is followed by the Holocene epoch. The Pleistocene is the third epoch of the Neogene period or 6th epoch of the Cenozoic Era.[1] The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the Paleolithic age used in archaeology. The Pleistocene is divided into the Early Pleistocene, Middle Pleistocene and Late Pleistocene, and numerous faunal stages.

Primate: member of the biological order Primates, the group that contains lemurs, the Aye-aye, lorids, galagos, tarsiers, monkeys, and apes, with the last category including humans. With the exception of humans, who now inhabit every continent on Earth, most primates live in tropical or subtropical regions of the Americas, Africa and Asia. Primates appeared approximately 70 million years ago.

Prospecting: the physical search for minerals, fossils, precious metals or mineral specimens, also known as fossicking. Prospecting is synonymous in some ways with mineral exploration which is an organised, large scale and at least semi-scientific effort undertaken by mineral resource companies to find commercially viable ore deposits. To actually be considered a prospector you must become registered as a professional prospector. This process is easy but necessary if you wish to work in mineral exploration.

Quaternary: the most recent geologic period; the current period of geologic time, beginning 1.6 million years ago and characterized by the appearance and dominance of humans. It is divided in two geologic epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene.

Fossil record: collection of remains and ancient biological traces that have been recovered from archaeological sites.

Sediment: any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of water or other liquid. Sedimentation is the deposition by settling of a suspended material. Sediments are also transported by wind (aeolian processes) and glaciers. Desert sand dunes and loess are examples of aeolian transport and deposition.

Silex/ Flint: a hard, sedimentary cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz categorized as a variety of chert. It occurs chiefly as nodules and masses in sedimentary rocks, such as chalks and limestones. Inside the nodule, flint is usually dark grey, black, green, white, or brown in colour, and often has a glassy or waxy appearance. A thin layer on the outside of the nodules is usually different in colour, typically white, and rough in texture. It is the most used material for tools making in the Prehistory.

Site (archaeological): any concentration of artifacts, ecofacts, features, and structures manufactured or modified by humans.

Sociobiology: the study of the biological and genetic basis of social organization and social behavior and their evolution in animals, a field of study that has caused controversy when applied to human social behavior and organization.

Specie: in biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are often used, such as based on similarity of DNA or morphology.

Speleology: speleology is the scientific study of caves and other karst features, their make-up, structure, physical properties, history, life forms, and the processes by which they form (speleogenesis) and change over time (speleomorphology). The term speleology is also sometimes applied to the recreational activity of exploring caves, but this is more properly known as caving, spelunking or potholing. Speleology and caving are often connected, as the physical skills required for in situ study are the same.

Taphonomy: the study of the processes by which animal and plant remains become preserved as fossils. The scientific study of fossilization. The study of the processes; such as, burial, decay, and preservation which affect animal and plant remains as they become fossilized. The study of the transformation of organic remains after death to form fossil and archaeological remains. The study includes the processes that disturb and damage bones before, during, and after burial; such as, burial procedures, decay, and preservation. The focus is on an understanding of the processes resulting in the archaeological record.

Taxonomy: the practice and science of classification. The word comes from the Greek taxis: order, arrangement and nomos: law, science. Taxonomies, or taxonomic schemes, are composed of taxonomic units known as taxa (singular taxon), or kinds of things that are arranged frequently in a hierarchical structure. Typically they are related by subtype-supertype relationships, also called parent-child relationships. In such a subtype-supertype relationship the subtype kind of thing has by definition the same constraints as the supertype kind of thing plus one or more additional constraints.

Tertiary: is an out-of-date term for a geologic period 65 million to 1.8 million years ago. The Tertiary covered the time span between the superseded Secondary period and an out-of-date definition of the Quaternary period. The period began with the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs in the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, at start of the Cenozoic era, spanning to beginning of the most recent Ice Age, at the end of the Pliocene epoch.

Topography: from the Greek topo: place and graphia: writing, is the study of Earth's surface features or those of planets, moons, and asteroids. In a broader sense, topography is concerned with local detail in general, including not only relief but also vegetative and human-made features, and even local history and culture.

Microtomopraphy (µCT): like tomography, uses x-rays to create cross-sections of a 3D-object that later can be used to recreate a virtual model without destroying the original model. The term micro is used to indicate that the pixel sizes of the cross-sections are in the micrometer range. This also means that the machine is much smaller in design compared to the human version and is used to model smaller objects. These scanners are typically used for small animals (in-vivo scanners), biomedical samples, foods, microfossils, and other studies for which minute detail is desired.

Zooarcheology/ archeozoology: a branch of archeology that studies the relations between human beings and animals in the past. Zooarcheology helps to provide a more complete picture of people's environment and way of life, especially their economy, as reflected in the relationship between people and animals 100,000 or even just 100 years ago. It is a multidisciplinary endeavor requiring knowledge of anatomy and biometry as well as an appreciation of the archeological questions that need to be addressed. Unlike most paleontological collections, zooarcheological collections are usually well dated and comprise large numbers of bones. They provide excellent opportunities to study microevolution.